Science Explorer Back to mapMap
Discussion
University · Trier · Germany

Universität Trier

In research, Universität Trier stands highest in Social Sciences (#1,320 of 9,585 worldwide), Social Sciences (#1,693 of 5,988 worldwide) and Arts and Humanities (#604 of 1,896 worldwide), 2022-now. Relative to its size it is most specialised in History and Philosophy of Science and Human-Computer Interaction (History and Philosophy of Science is 9.9× its share of world research).

uni-trier.deROR OpenAlex
World rank, 2022-now
#2,669
of 22,385 · #2,818 all time
Rank in Germany
#113
of 795
Research works
9k
▲ 4% vs 2018-21
Citations
174k
19.4 per fractional work
Top-10% rate
11.1%
all institutions 10.0%
vs its own fields
1.09×
1.00× is exactly expected
Open access
29%
world 40%
International
17%
world 18%
Universität Trier

What is Universität Trier known for in research?

The fields where it stands highest, 2022-now, ranked among every institution above the floor in each field.

FieldWorld rankWhere that sitsTop-10% rateWorksAll time
Social SciencesDomain #1,320 of 9,585 12.8%1,015 #1458
Social SciencesField #1,693 of 5,988 12.4%402 #1522
Arts and HumanitiesField #604 of 1,896 14.6%227 #842
Business, Management and AccountingField #945 of 2,581 10.6%118 #932
PsychologyField #844 of 2,121 14.9%181 #1128
Physical SciencesDomain #4,754 of 10,670 7.5%354 #3377
Sociology and Political ScienceSubfield #1,247 of 2,526 12.9%165 #1099
Health SciencesDomain #5,792 of 9,902 10.0%102 #5535
Political Science and International RelationsSubfield #796 of 1,187 11.2%92 #801
Environmental ScienceField #2,313 of 3,334 9.9%67 #1708

Each strip is that field's whole ranked pool, with the notch where Universität Trier sits in it, in the colour of the band that rank falls in. The track under the rate is the rate itself: it carries no average mark, because the average differs by field (from about 6% in Dentistry to 21% in Economics).

Which of those standings moved

The same fields on both windows: where it stood over the whole record, and where it stands in 2022-now. The distance is the story, and it is the one thing the two rank columns above cannot show.

  1. Social Sciences#1,458 #1,320
  2. Social Sciences#1,522 #1,693
  3. Arts and Humanities#842 #604
  4. Business, Management and Accounting#932 #945
  5. Psychology#1,128 #844
  6. Physical Sciences#3,377 #4,754
  7. Sociology and Political Science#1,099 #1,247
  8. Health Sciences#5,535 #5,792
  9. Political Science and International Relations#801 #796
  10. Environmental Science#1,708 #2,313
all time2022-now, better2022-now, worse

A dot further right is a better standing. Fields it was not ranked in over the whole record are left out.

Which fields of science does Universität Trier work in?

In 2022-now, 62% of research at Universität Trier is in Social Sciences, 23% in Physical Sciences. Its largest fields are Social Sciences (24%), Arts and Humanities (14%), Psychology (11%). It does 2.5× the world's share of Social Sciences.

Social Sciences: 1,111 fractional works · 62.3% of its workSocial Sciences: 436 fractional works · 24.4% of its workSociology and Political Science: 178 fractional works · 10.0% of its workPolitical Science and International Relations: 102 fractional works · 5.7% of its workEducation: 27 fractional works · 1.5% of its workLaw: 22 fractional works · 1.2% of its workCommunication: 22 fractional works · 1.2% of its workCultural Studies: 17 fractional works · 1.0% of its workAnthropology: 17 fractional works · 1.0% of its workDemography: 12 fractional works · 0.7% of its workGender Studies: 8 fractional works · 0.5% of its workPublic Administration: 8 fractional works · 0.4% of its workSafety Research: 7 fractional works · 0.4% of its workUrban Studies: 4 fractional works · 0.2% of its workSmaller subfields together: 12 fractional works · 0.7% of its workArts and Humanities: 256 fractional works · 14.3% of its workLiterature and Literary Theory: 51 fractional works · 2.8% of its workLanguage and Linguistics: 43 fractional works · 2.4% of its workPhilosophy: 35 fractional works · 2.0% of its workHistory: 31 fractional works · 1.7% of its workHistory and Philosophy of Science: 27 fractional works · 1.5% of its workClassics: 18 fractional works · 1.0% of its workArcheology: 18 fractional works · 1.0% of its workMuseology: 12 fractional works · 0.7% of its workReligious studies: 9 fractional works · 0.5% of its workVisual Arts and Performing Arts: 8 fractional works · 0.5% of its workSmaller subfields together: 3 fractional works · 0.2% of its workPsychology: 200 fractional works · 11.2% of its workSocial Psychology: 68 fractional works · 3.8% of its workClinical Psychology: 49 fractional works · 2.8% of its workExperimental and Cognitive Psychology: 43 fractional works · 2.4% of its workApplied Psychology: 19 fractional works · 1.1% of its workDevelopmental and Educational Psychology: 17 fractional works · 1.0% of its workSmaller subfields together: 2 fractional works · 0.1% of its workBusiness, Management and Accounting: 128 fractional works · 7.2% of its workStrategy and Management: 37 fractional works · 2.1% of its workOrganizational Behavior and Human Resource Management: 27 fractional works · 1.5% of its workManagement of Technology and Innovation: 24 fractional works · 1.4% of its workMarketing: 18 fractional works · 1.0% of its workAccounting: 10 fractional works · 0.6% of its workManagement Information Systems: 8 fractional works · 0.5% of its workSmaller subfields together: 4 fractional works · 0.2% of its workEconomics, Econometrics and Finance: 58 fractional works · 3.3% of its workEconomics and Econometrics: 42 fractional works · 2.4% of its workFinance: 10 fractional works · 0.6% of its workGeneral Economics, Econometrics and Finance: 6 fractional works · 0.3% of its workDecision Sciences: 34 fractional works · 1.9% of its workManagement Science and Operations Research: 22 fractional works · 1.2% of its workInformation Systems and Management: 7 fractional works · 0.4% of its workSmaller subfields together: 6 fractional works · 0.3% of its workPhysical Sciences: 403 fractional works · 22.6% of its workComputer Science: 167 fractional works · 9.4% of its workArtificial Intelligence: 61 fractional works · 3.4% of its workComputational Theory and Mathematics: 33 fractional works · 1.9% of its workHuman-Computer Interaction: 20 fractional works · 1.1% of its workInformation Systems: 16 fractional works · 0.9% of its workComputer Vision and Pattern Recognition: 15 fractional works · 0.8% of its workComputer Networks and Communications: 7 fractional works · 0.4% of its workComputer Science Applications: 4 fractional works · 0.2% of its workSignal Processing: 4 fractional works · 0.2% of its workSmaller subfields together: 5 fractional works · 0.3% of its workEnvironmental Science: 80 fractional works · 4.5% of its workEcology: 21 fractional works · 1.2% of its workGlobal and Planetary Change: 14 fractional works · 0.8% of its workManagement, Monitoring, Policy and Law: 9 fractional works · 0.5% of its workEnvironmental Engineering: 8 fractional works · 0.5% of its workNature and Landscape Conservation: 8 fractional works · 0.4% of its workPollution: 5 fractional works · 0.3% of its workEcological Modeling: 5 fractional works · 0.3% of its workWater Science and Technology: 4 fractional works · 0.2% of its workSmaller subfields together: 6 fractional works · 0.4% of its workEngineering: 70 fractional works · 3.9% of its workComputational Mechanics: 11 fractional works · 0.6% of its workControl and Systems Engineering: 11 fractional works · 0.6% of its workIndustrial and Manufacturing Engineering: 9 fractional works · 0.5% of its workCivil and Structural Engineering: 6 fractional works · 0.3% of its workMechanical Engineering: 5 fractional works · 0.3% of its workElectrical and Electronic Engineering: 5 fractional works · 0.3% of its workBiomedical Engineering: 4 fractional works · 0.2% of its workMedia Technology: 4 fractional works · 0.2% of its workSmaller subfields together: 15 fractional works · 0.9% of its workMathematics: 46 fractional works · 2.6% of its workStatistics and Probability: 16 fractional works · 0.9% of its workApplied Mathematics: 9 fractional works · 0.5% of its workNumerical Analysis: 8 fractional works · 0.4% of its workMathematical Physics: 5 fractional works · 0.3% of its workSmaller subfields together: 9 fractional works · 0.5% of its workEarth and Planetary Sciences: 20 fractional works · 1.1% of its workAtmospheric Science: 10 fractional works · 0.6% of its workSmaller subfields together: 10 fractional works · 0.6% of its workPhysics and Astronomy: 9 fractional works · 0.5% of its workStatistical and Nonlinear Physics: 6 fractional works · 0.4% of its workSmaller subfields together: 2 fractional works · 0.1% of its workMaterials Science: 5 fractional works · 0.3% of its workChemistry: 3 fractional works · 0.2% of its workEnergy: 2 fractional works · 0.1% of its workChemical Engineering: 1 fractional works · 0.1% of its workLife Sciences: 155 fractional works · 8.7% of its workNeuroscience: 84 fractional works · 4.7% of its workCognitive Neuroscience: 72 fractional works · 4.0% of its workBehavioral Neuroscience: 6 fractional works · 0.4% of its workSmaller subfields together: 5 fractional works · 0.3% of its workAgricultural and Biological Sciences: 42 fractional works · 2.3% of its workPlant Science: 12 fractional works · 0.7% of its workEcology, Evolution, Behavior and Systematics: 8 fractional works · 0.5% of its workFood Science: 7 fractional works · 0.4% of its workSoil Science: 5 fractional works · 0.3% of its workSmaller subfields together: 9 fractional works · 0.5% of its workBiochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology: 28 fractional works · 1.5% of its workMolecular Biology: 17 fractional works · 0.9% of its workGenetics: 5 fractional works · 0.3% of its workSmaller subfields together: 6 fractional works · 0.3% of its workImmunology and Microbiology: 2 fractional works · 0.1% of its workHealth Sciences: 114 fractional works · 6.4% of its workMedicine: 73 fractional works · 4.1% of its workPublic Health, Environmental and Occupational Health: 18 fractional works · 1.0% of its workPsychiatry and Mental health: 7 fractional works · 0.4% of its workEpidemiology: 6 fractional works · 0.4% of its workSurgery: 5 fractional works · 0.3% of its workCardiology and Cardiovascular Medicine: 5 fractional works · 0.3% of its workSmaller subfields together: 33 fractional works · 1.9% of its workHealth Professions: 39 fractional works · 2.2% of its workGeneral Health Professions: 33 fractional works · 1.8% of its workSmaller subfields together: 7 fractional works · 0.4% of its workVeterinary: 1 fractional works · 0.1% of its workALL ITS WORKUniversität Trier1,783fractional works, 2022-now
Life Sciences9%Physical Sciences23%Health Sciences6%Social Sciences62%

Each ring splits the one inside it: the four domains of science, their fields, their subfields. Size is fractional works in 2022-now. Every slice is a page; the interactive view zooms down to single topics and colours each by how much more of it this institution does than the world.

Its 4 domains and 26 fields, with their numbers
  1. Social Sciences1,11162.3%
    1. Social Sciences43624.4%
    2. Arts and Humanities25614.3%
    3. Psychology20011.2%
    4. Business, Management and Accounting1287.2%
    5. Economics, Econometrics and Finance583.3%
    6. Decision Sciences341.9%
    1. Computer Science1679.4%
    2. Environmental Science804.5%
    3. Engineering703.9%
    4. Mathematics462.6%
    5. Earth and Planetary Sciences201.1%
    6. Physics and Astronomy90.5%
    7. Materials Science50.3%
    8. Chemistry30.2%
    9. Energy20.1%
    10. Chemical Engineering10.1%
    1. Neuroscience844.7%
    2. Agricultural and Biological Sciences422.3%
    3. Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology281.5%
    4. Immunology and Microbiology20.1%
    5. Pharmacology, Toxicology and Pharmaceutics00.0%
    1. Medicine734.1%
    2. Health Professions392.2%
    3. Veterinary10.1%
    4. Dentistry00.0%
    5. Nursing00.0%
All of science, and how each field's share has moved since 1950: the Science domain explorer

What does Universität Trier specialise in?

Where its research is concentrated relative to its size: History and Philosophy of Science takes 9.9× the share of its output that it takes of world research.

  1. History and Philosophy of ScienceSubfield · 27.2 works9.9×
  2. Human-Computer InteractionSubfield · 20.5 works5.6×
← less than its size predicts1×more →

Location quotient, a volume reading rather than an impact one. It surfaces small, lopsided specialities.

Field profile

Location quotient across every field it publishes in: outside the ring is more than an institution of this size would be expected to publish, inside it is less.

Agricultural and Biological Sciences: 0.49× its world share, 42 worksAgricultural and Bio…Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology: 0.29× its world share, 28 worksBiochemistry, Geneti…Immunology and Microbiology: 0.10× its world share, 2 worksImmunology and Micro…Neuroscience: 2.89× its world share, 84 worksNeurosciencePharmacology, Toxicology and Pharmaceutics: 0.06× its world share, 0 worksPharmacology, Toxico…Chemical Engineering: 0.15× its world share, 1 worksChemical EngineeringChemistry: 0.12× its world share, 3 worksChemistryComputer Science: 1.20× its world share, 167 worksComputer ScienceEarth and Planetary Sciences: 0.72× its world share, 20 worksEarth and Planetary …Energy: 0.13× its world share, 2 worksEnergyEngineering: 0.26× its world share, 70 worksEngineeringEnvironmental Science: 0.90× its world share, 80 worksEnvironmental ScienceMaterials Science: 0.08× its world share, 5 worksMaterials ScienceMathematics: 2.20× its world share, 46 worksMathematicsPhysics and Astronomy: 0.22× its world share, 9 worksPhysics and AstronomyDentistry: 0.03× its world share, 0 worksDentistryHealth Professions: 0.84× its world share, 39 worksHealth ProfessionsMedicine: 0.21× its world share, 73 worksMedicineNursing: 0.02× its world share, 0 worksNursingVeterinary: 0.49× its world share, 1 worksVeterinaryArts and Humanities: 4.96× its world share, 256 worksArts and HumanitiesBusiness, Management and Accounting: 2.23× its world share, 128 worksBusiness, Management…Decision Sciences: 1.96× its world share, 34 worksDecision SciencesEconomics, Econometrics and Finance: 1.52× its world share, 58 worksEconomics, Econometr…Psychology: 3.68× its world share, 200 worksPsychologySocial Sciences: 1.93× its world share, 436 worksSocial Sciences1×world share
more than its size predictsabout as predictedless

Rings at 0.5×, 1× and 2×. Widest outward: Arts and Humanities, 5.0×. Every wedge is a field page.

All 26 fields, with their numbers
  1. Arts and Humanities4.96×256 works
  2. Psychology3.68×200 works
  3. Neuroscience2.89×84 works
  4. Business, Management and Accounting2.23×128 works
  5. Mathematics2.20×46 works
  6. Decision Sciences1.96×34 works
  7. Social Sciences1.93×436 works
  8. Economics, Econometrics and Finance1.52×58 works
  9. Computer Science1.20×167 works
  10. Environmental Science0.90×80 works
  11. Health Professions0.84×39 works
  12. Earth and Planetary Sciences0.72×20 works
  13. Agricultural and Biological Sciences0.49×42 works
  14. Veterinary0.49×1 works
  15. Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology0.29×28 works
  16. Engineering0.26×70 works
  17. Physics and Astronomy0.22×9 works
  18. Medicine0.21×73 works
  19. Chemical Engineering0.15×1 works
  20. Energy0.13×2 works
  21. Chemistry0.12×3 works
  22. Immunology and Microbiology0.10×2 works
  23. Materials Science0.08×5 works
  24. Pharmacology, Toxicology and Pharmaceutics0.06×0 works
  25. Dentistry0.03×0 works
  26. Nursing0.02×0 works

Who are the top researchers at Universität Trier?

Ranked on the quality score, Joern Block, Christian O. Fisch and David Frantz lead among researchers whose main affiliation is Universität Trier.

  1. 1 Joern Block Germany · #42,843 worldwide 15k citations · 400 works
  2. 2 Christian O. Fisch Germany · #51,797 worldwide 5.4k citations · 124 works
  3. 3 David Frantz Germany · #129,181 worldwide 3.6k citations · 155 works
  4. 4 Dirk Helmut Hellhammer Germany · #147,620 worldwide 51k citations · 352 works
  5. 5 Julian A. Rubel Germany · #219,456 worldwide 6.5k citations · 230 works
  6. 6 Wolfgang Lutz Germany · #290,730 worldwide 12k citations · 416 works
  7. 7 Sören Thiele‐Bruhn Germany · #295,031 worldwide 8.6k citations · 175 works
  8. 8 Michael Schneider Germany · #389,348 worldwide 7.9k citations · 154 works
  9. 9 Marcela Pozas Germany · #563,076 worldwide 1.1k citations · 56 works
  10. 10 Jesús Rodrigo‐Comino Germany · #609,147 worldwide 11k citations · 367 works
All ranked researchers at Universität Trier

What are the most cited papers from Universität Trier?

The most cited paper from Universität Trier is "The ‘Trier Social Stress Test’ – A Tool for Investigating Psychobiological Stress Responses in a Laboratory Setting" (Clemens Kirschbaum, Karl‐Martin Pirke, Dirk Helmut Hellhammer, 2008), with 6,194 citations. Next come "GPOWER: A general power analysis program" (4,946) and "Two formulas for computation of the area under the curve represent measures of total hormone concentration versus time-dependent change" (3,677).

Most cited papers
#PaperReleasedCitations
1 The ‘Trier Social Stress Test’ – A Tool for Investigating Psychobiological Stress Responses in a Laboratory Setting Clemens Kirschbaum, Karl‐Martin Pirke, Dirk Helmut Hellhammer · Neuropsychobiology 22 Feb 2008 6,194
2 GPOWER: A general power analysis program Edgar Erdfelder, Franz Faul, Axel Buchner · Behavior Research Methods, Instruments, & Computers Open access Mar 1996 4,946
3 Two formulas for computation of the area under the curve represent measures of total hormone concentration versus time-dependent change Jens C. Pruessner, Clemens Kirschbaum, Gunther Meinlschmid et al. · Psychoneuroendocrinology 4 Mar 2003 3,677
4 Genetic relationship between five psychiatric disorders estimated from genome-wide SNPs S Hong Lee et al. · Nature Genetics Open access370 authors 11 Aug 2013 2,374
5 Salivary cortisol in psychoneuroendocrine research: Recent developments and applications Clemens Kirschbaum, Dirk Helmut Hellhammer · Psychoneuroendocrinology 1994 2,131
All 60 most cited papers, with filters and sorting

Which keywords describe research at Universität Trier?

By fractional works in 2022-now, weighted toward what it does more of than the world: Gender, Governance, Neural Mechanisms, Identity, Emotion Regulation, Globalization, History and Education.

▲ more of its work than of the world's◆ about the world's share▼ less than the world's

Size is fractional works in 2022-now in the topics tagged with each word; colour is the word's share of this institution's work against its share of the world's. The 40 words are chosen for being large and distinctive. Each links to the topic it comes from most.

All 40 words, with their numbers
  1. Globalization71▲ 2.0×63 topics
  2. Education62▲ 2.0×46 topics
  3. Climate Change61▲ 1.26×72 topics
  4. Gender58▲ 6.1×34 topics
  5. Identity52▲ 4.0×35 topics
  6. Sustainable Development49▲ 1.74×36 topics
  7. History47▲ 3.8×31 topics
  8. Innovation46▲ 2.5×29 topics
  9. Governance44▲ 7.5×12 topics
  10. Emotion Regulation40▲ 7.1×9 topics
  11. Neural Mechanisms40▲ 22×4 topics
  12. Literature38▲ 3.9×28 topics
  13. Digital Transformation37▲ 3.9×13 topics
  14. Leadership36▲ 4.2×16 topics
  15. Ethics36▲ 4.0×30 topics
  16. Philosophy35▲ 4.4×25 topics
  17. Nationalism31▲ 3.9×22 topics
  18. Cultural Studies29▲ 4.4×17 topics
  19. Embodiment29▲ 8.6×6 topics
  20. Bildung27▲ 48×3 topics
  21. Decision Making27▲ 5.2×4 topics
  22. Neoliberalism27▲ 4.2×17 topics
  23. Prefrontal Cortex25▲ 17×3 topics
  24. Qualitative Inhaltsanalyse24▲ 35×2 topics
  25. Social Cognition24▲ 7.3×8 topics
  26. Neuroimaging Studies24▲ 24×2 topics
  27. Mobile Health23▲ 8.8×3 topics
  28. Executive Functions22▲ 21×2 topics
  29. Bildungsungleichheit22▲ 45×1 topic
  30. Ethnografisches Schreiben22▲ 45×1 topic
  31. Customer Experience22▲ 7.5×4 topics
  32. Sociolinguistics22▲ 6.7×5 topics
  33. Cognitive Control22▲ 19×2 topics
  34. Autorschaft21▲ 60×1 topic
  35. Literaturkritik21▲ 60×1 topic
  36. Adolescent Brain Development21▲ 32×1 topic
  37. Attentional Networks21▲ 32×1 topic
  38. Cultural History21▲ 9.6×12 topics
  39. Digital Communication20▲ 17×3 topics
  40. Phraseology19▲ 15×2 topics

Which research topics does Universität Trier publish most on?

By volume in 2022-now: Sociology and Education Studies, German Literature and Culture Studies, Neural and Behavioral Psychology Studies and Linguistic research and analysis.

Sociology and Education …22Sociology and Education Studies: 22 fractional worksGerman Literature and Cu…21German Literature and Culture Studies: 21 fractional worksNeural and Behavioral Psychology Studies: 21 fractional worksLinguistic research and analysis: 18 fractional worksSports Science and Education: 15 fractional worksEconomic and Social Issues: 15 fractional worksAction Observation and Synchronization: 14 fractional worksDigital Innovation in In…14Digital Innovation in Industries: 14 fractional worksHistorical, Literary, and Cultural Studies: 14 fractional worksPublic Administration and Political Analysis: 14 fractional works
Sociology and Political ScienceLiterature and Literary TheoryCognitive NeuroscienceLanguage and Linguistics5 others

Area is fractional works; colour is the subfield each topic belongs to.

  1. 1 Sociology and Education Studies Sociology and Political Science 22 works
  2. 2 German Literature and Culture Studies Literature and Literary Theory 21 works
  3. 3 Neural and Behavioral Psychology Studies Cognitive Neuroscience 21 works
  4. 4 Linguistic research and analysis Language and Linguistics 18 works
  5. 5 Sports Science and Education History and Philosophy of Science 15 works
  6. 6 Economic and Social Issues Sociology and Political Science 15 works
  7. 7 Action Observation and Synchronization Social Psychology 14 works
  8. 8 Digital Innovation in Industries Management of Technology and Innovation 14 works
  9. 9 Historical, Literary, and Cultural Studies Classics 14 works
  10. 10 Public Administration and Political Analysis Political Science and International Relations 14 works

How open and international is its research?

Against the world's own shares: the tick on each track. Both are shares of its output, so they sit on one scale and can be read against each other as well as against the world.

openly available29.2%not open70.8%

World: 40% of research is openly available.

with international co-authors16.6%domestic only83.4%

World: 18% is written across borders.

How has Universität Trier's research output changed?

Output in 2022-2025 was 4% higher than in 2018-2021.

still counting1990200020102020
grewheldshrank

The same series as a ribbon: one cell per year, darker for more. The line above answers how much; this answers when.

Its share of all research

Growing output can still be a shrinking share: all of science grows. This is Universität Trier as a percentage of every work published that year, 0.0073% in 2024.

still counting0.0050%0.010%0.015%Universität Trier0.0072% in 202519801990200020102020

Fractional works of Universität Trier over all fractional works that year. How the balance of science has shifted.

How much of it reaches the world top 10%

Year by year, against all institutions in the same year.

still counting5%10%15%Universität Trier11.3% in 2025all institutions10.0% in 2025200020102020

Of each year's output, the share that reached the world's 10% most cited for its field and year. Peak 13.9% in 2005.

Other research institutions in Trier

All research institutions in Trier

Share Universität Trier's ranking

Universität Trier on Science Explorer

A card with Universität Trier's standing and the fields it leads in, for a post or a slide. A link to this page previews as the same card.

Download the card

1200 × 630 PNG, sized for social posts, drawn from the latest snapshot.

Badges for a website1Each links back here and updates with every snapshot

Research measures only: rankings here say nothing about teaching, admissions or student experience. Comparable institutions and collaboration partners have tabs of their own, above.

Discussion

Ask a question or share a note about Universität Trier. Posts are plain text and can be reported.