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Research in Huntsville

Science Explorer records 69 research institutions in Huntsville, United States. The highest-ranked on research quality in 2022-now are University of Alabama in Huntsville, Simulation Technologies (United States) and Alabama Agricultural and Mechanical University.

Research institutions
69
9 of them ranked worldwide
Research works
26k
▼ 6% vs 2018-21
Citations
422k
15.9 per fractional work, all time
Top-10% rate, 2022-now
14.6%
all institutions 10.0%
Active span
1950-2026
77 years on the record

A city carries no overall standing here. The quality score is built for institutions and countries, the units its floors and field normalisation were designed around. An empty rank on this page is a statement about the measure, not about the place.

Which research institutions are in Huntsville?

#InstitutionWorksAgainst the largest hereWorld rank
1University of Alabama in HuntsvilleUniversity 13,174 #2,146
2Optical Sciences (United States)Company 2,794 #16,728
3Alabama Agricultural and Mechanical UniversityUniversity 2,746 #11,464
4U.S. Army Aviation and Missile CommandGovernment institution 1,354 #15,174 all time
5CFD Research Corporation (United States)Company 1,007 #15,057
6Simulation Technologies (United States)Company 734 #6,159
7Systems Dynamics (United States)Company 460 #15,884
8HudsonAlpha Institute for BiotechnologyNonprofit 352 #13,822
9Sikorsky Aircraft Corporation (United States)Company 328 #24,511 all time
10Dynetics (United States)Company 311 #23,590 all time
11Huntsville HospitalHospital / health system 309 #21,737
12Oakwood UniversityUniversity 249 #23,094 all time
13Electroformed Nickel (United States)Company 213 #32,798 all time
14AEgis Technologies (United States)Company 191 #23,671 all time
15Dynamic Concepts (United States)Company 174 #29,787 all time
16Time Domain (United States)Company 157 #25,602 all time
17Radiance Technologies (United States)Company 151 #30,735 all time
18Davidson Technologies (United States)Company 150 #21,409
19Plasma Processes (United States)Company 146 #33,487 all time
20AZ Technology (United States)Company 140 #24,618 all time
21Advanced Optical Systems (United States)Company 135 #33,694 all time
22Torch Technologies (United States)Company 133 #31,258 all time
23System Dynamics International (United States)Company 116 not ranked
24Tec-Masters (United States)Company 97 not ranked
25Optimization Technology (United States)Company 94 not ranked
26Polaris Sensor Technologies (United States)Company 64 not ranked
27SSS Optical TechnologiesCompany 54 not ranked
28DESE Research (United States)Company 52 not ranked
29Amtec (United States)Company 42 not ranked
30Integrated Solutions for Systems (United States)Company 42 not ranked
31PeopleTec (United States)Company 34 not ranked
32National Children's Advocacy CenterNonprofit 33 not ranked
33Sentar (United States)Company 33 not ranked
34AI Signal Research (United States)Company 32 not ranked
35iRepertoire (United States)Company 31 not ranked
36Clearview Cancer InstituteHospital / health system 28 not ranked
37IERUS Technologies (United States)Company 28 not ranked
38Streamline Automation (United States)Company 27 not ranked
39Kord Technologies (United States)Company 25 not ranked
40Aero Thermo Technology (United States)Company 24 not ranked
41iXpressGenes (United States)Company 23 not ranked
42New Century Pharmaceuticals (United States)Company 22 not ranked
43DeciBel Research (United States)Company 21 not ranked
44J.F. Drake State Community and Technical CollegeUniversity 20 not ranked
45ADTRAN (United States)Company 20 not ranked
46Integration Innovation (United States)Company 19 not ranked
47Archarithms (United States)Company 17 not ranked
48Intuitive Research and Technology Corporation (United States)Company 13 not ranked
49Q-Track Corporation (United States)Company 13 not ranked
50Physitron (United States)Company 11 not ranked
51Huntsville Bible CollegeUniversity 7 not ranked
52Huntsville Madison County ChamberInstitution 7 not ranked
53Sigmatech (United States)Company 7 not ranked
54Value-Driven Design InstituteNonprofit 5 not ranked
55Gastops (United States)Company 5 not ranked
56ASRC Federal Analytical Service (United States)Company 4 not ranked
57East West Enterprises (United States)Company 4 not ranked
58U.S. Space and Rocket CenterArchive 2 not ranked
59Instrumental Sciences (United States)Company 2 not ranked
60Nou Systems (United States)Company 2 not ranked

By fractional works over the whole record; world rank on research quality in 2022-now. Bars are scaled to the largest institution in this city, not to anything off the page.

How concentrated the city is

The same institutions as shares of everything the list accounts for. A city that is one university and a city that is twelve read alike as a table and not at all alike here.

University of Alabama in Huntsville: 49.7%Optical Sciences (United States): 10.5%Alabama Agricultural and Mechanical University: 10.4%U.S. Army Aviation and Missile Command: 5.1%56 others listed: 24.2%50%largest
University of Alabama in Huntsville13k · 49.7%Optical Sciences (United States)2,794 · 10.5%Alabama Agricultural and Mechanical University2,746 · 10.4%U.S. Army Aviation and Missile Command1,354 · 5.1%56 others listed6,420 · 24.2%

Shares of the rows listed above, not of the whole node.

Which fields of science does Huntsville work in?

In 2022-now, 58% of research in Huntsville is in Physical Sciences, 17% in Social Sciences. Its largest fields are Engineering (26%), Medicine (11%), Physics and Astronomy (9%). It does 1.5× the world's share of Physical Sciences.

Physical Sciences: 1,949 fractional works · 58.1% of its workEngineering: 884 fractional works · 26.4% of its workAerospace Engineering: 188 fractional works · 5.6% of its workElectrical and Electronic Engineering: 164 fractional works · 4.9% of its workBiomedical Engineering: 94 fractional works · 2.8% of its workMechanical Engineering: 83 fractional works · 2.5% of its workComputational Mechanics: 74 fractional works · 2.2% of its workControl and Systems Engineering: 60 fractional works · 1.8% of its workOcean Engineering: 45 fractional works · 1.3% of its workMechanics of Materials: 34 fractional works · 1.0% of its workCivil and Structural Engineering: 30 fractional works · 0.9% of its workAutomotive Engineering: 28 fractional works · 0.8% of its workIndustrial and Manufacturing Engineering: 27 fractional works · 0.8% of its workSafety, Risk, Reliability and Quality: 23 fractional works · 0.7% of its workMedia Technology: 18 fractional works · 0.5% of its workBuilding and Construction: 14 fractional works · 0.4% of its workPhysics and Astronomy: 312 fractional works · 9.3% of its workAstronomy and Astrophysics: 161 fractional works · 4.8% of its workAtomic and Molecular Physics, and Optics: 67 fractional works · 2.0% of its workStatistical and Nonlinear Physics: 31 fractional works · 0.9% of its workNuclear and High Energy Physics: 28 fractional works · 0.8% of its workRadiation: 9 fractional works · 0.3% of its workInstrumentation: 8 fractional works · 0.2% of its workSmaller subfields together: 8 fractional works · 0.2% of its workComputer Science: 308 fractional works · 9.2% of its workArtificial Intelligence: 107 fractional works · 3.2% of its workInformation Systems: 54 fractional works · 1.6% of its workComputer Vision and Pattern Recognition: 41 fractional works · 1.2% of its workComputer Networks and Communications: 40 fractional works · 1.2% of its workComputational Theory and Mathematics: 20 fractional works · 0.6% of its workHardware and Architecture: 16 fractional works · 0.5% of its workSignal Processing: 9 fractional works · 0.3% of its workHuman-Computer Interaction: 7 fractional works · 0.2% of its workSmaller subfields together: 14 fractional works · 0.4% of its workEnvironmental Science: 159 fractional works · 4.7% of its workGlobal and Planetary Change: 57 fractional works · 1.7% of its workEnvironmental Engineering: 26 fractional works · 0.8% of its workEcology: 20 fractional works · 0.6% of its workNature and Landscape Conservation: 11 fractional works · 0.3% of its workHealth, Toxicology and Mutagenesis: 10 fractional works · 0.3% of its workWater Science and Technology: 10 fractional works · 0.3% of its workManagement, Monitoring, Policy and Law: 8 fractional works · 0.2% of its workIndustrial and Manufacturing Engineering: 7 fractional works · 0.2% of its workSmaller subfields together: 10 fractional works · 0.3% of its workMaterials Science: 100 fractional works · 3.0% of its workMaterials Chemistry: 62 fractional works · 1.8% of its workElectronic, Optical and Magnetic Materials: 17 fractional works · 0.5% of its workSmaller subfields together: 22 fractional works · 0.6% of its workEarth and Planetary Sciences: 80 fractional works · 2.4% of its workAtmospheric Science: 42 fractional works · 1.3% of its workGeophysics: 13 fractional works · 0.4% of its workOceanography: 13 fractional works · 0.4% of its workSmaller subfields together: 12 fractional works · 0.4% of its workMathematics: 47 fractional works · 1.4% of its workStatistics and Probability: 15 fractional works · 0.4% of its workApplied Mathematics: 12 fractional works · 0.3% of its workSmaller subfields together: 21 fractional works · 0.6% of its workChemistry: 33 fractional works · 1.0% of its workOrganic Chemistry: 10 fractional works · 0.3% of its workSmaller subfields together: 23 fractional works · 0.7% of its workEnergy: 13 fractional works · 0.4% of its workRenewable Energy, Sustainability and the Environment: 12 fractional works · 0.4% of its workSmaller subfields together: 2 fractional works · 0.0% of its workChemical Engineering: 12 fractional works · 0.4% of its workSocial Sciences: 584 fractional works · 17.4% of its workSocial Sciences: 253 fractional works · 7.6% of its workEducation: 78 fractional works · 2.3% of its workSociology and Political Science: 63 fractional works · 1.9% of its workPolitical Science and International Relations: 37 fractional works · 1.1% of its workSafety Research: 13 fractional works · 0.4% of its workGender Studies: 8 fractional works · 0.2% of its workDemography: 8 fractional works · 0.2% of its workTransportation: 7 fractional works · 0.2% of its workHealth: 7 fractional works · 0.2% of its workSmaller subfields together: 32 fractional works · 1.0% of its workBusiness, Management and Accounting: 77 fractional works · 2.3% of its workStrategy and Management: 16 fractional works · 0.5% of its workManagement of Technology and Innovation: 15 fractional works · 0.4% of its workMarketing: 12 fractional works · 0.4% of its workManagement Information Systems: 12 fractional works · 0.3% of its workAccounting: 11 fractional works · 0.3% of its workOrganizational Behavior and Human Resource Management: 10 fractional works · 0.3% of its workSmaller subfields together: 1 fractional works · 0.0% of its workArts and Humanities: 68 fractional works · 2.0% of its workPhilosophy: 14 fractional works · 0.4% of its workLiterature and Literary Theory: 13 fractional works · 0.4% of its workHistory and Philosophy of Science: 8 fractional works · 0.2% of its workHistory: 7 fractional works · 0.2% of its workLanguage and Linguistics: 7 fractional works · 0.2% of its workSmaller subfields together: 19 fractional works · 0.6% of its workPsychology: 66 fractional works · 2.0% of its workSocial Psychology: 29 fractional works · 0.9% of its workClinical Psychology: 18 fractional works · 0.5% of its workExperimental and Cognitive Psychology: 9 fractional works · 0.3% of its workDevelopmental and Educational Psychology: 7 fractional works · 0.2% of its workSmaller subfields together: 4 fractional works · 0.1% of its workDecision Sciences: 62 fractional works · 1.9% of its workManagement Science and Operations Research: 31 fractional works · 0.9% of its workInformation Systems and Management: 17 fractional works · 0.5% of its workStatistics, Probability and Uncertainty: 14 fractional works · 0.4% of its workEconomics, Econometrics and Finance: 58 fractional works · 1.7% of its workEconomics and Econometrics: 45 fractional works · 1.4% of its workFinance: 9 fractional works · 0.3% of its workSmaller subfields together: 4 fractional works · 0.1% of its workHealth Sciences: 446 fractional works · 13.3% of its workMedicine: 363 fractional works · 10.8% of its workSurgery: 33 fractional works · 1.0% of its workPhysiology: 33 fractional works · 1.0% of its workEpidemiology: 30 fractional works · 0.9% of its workPublic Health, Environmental and Occupational Health: 29 fractional works · 0.9% of its workRadiology, Nuclear Medicine and Imaging: 25 fractional works · 0.8% of its workPulmonary and Respiratory Medicine: 25 fractional works · 0.7% of its workCardiology and Cardiovascular Medicine: 22 fractional works · 0.6% of its workOncology: 17 fractional works · 0.5% of its workInfectious Diseases: 15 fractional works · 0.4% of its workEndocrinology, Diabetes and Metabolism: 10 fractional works · 0.3% of its workPediatrics, Perinatology and Child Health: 9 fractional works · 0.3% of its workNeurology: 9 fractional works · 0.3% of its workDermatology: 9 fractional works · 0.3% of its workOrthopedics and Sports Medicine: 9 fractional works · 0.3% of its workPharmacology: 8 fractional works · 0.2% of its workRheumatology: 8 fractional works · 0.2% of its workPsychiatry and Mental health: 8 fractional works · 0.2% of its workSmaller subfields together: 65 fractional works · 1.9% of its workHealth Professions: 64 fractional works · 1.9% of its workGeneral Health Professions: 33 fractional works · 1.0% of its workEmergency Medical Services: 9 fractional works · 0.3% of its workSmaller subfields together: 22 fractional works · 0.7% of its workNursing: 14 fractional works · 0.4% of its workNutrition and Dietetics: 8 fractional works · 0.3% of its workSmaller subfields together: 5 fractional works · 0.2% of its workVeterinary: 4 fractional works · 0.1% of its workDentistry: 1 fractional works · 0.0% of its workLife Sciences: 374 fractional works · 11.1% of its workBiochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology: 169 fractional works · 5.0% of its workMolecular Biology: 98 fractional works · 2.9% of its workGenetics: 34 fractional works · 1.0% of its workSmaller subfields together: 37 fractional works · 1.1% of its workAgricultural and Biological Sciences: 139 fractional works · 4.1% of its workPlant Science: 59 fractional works · 1.8% of its workFood Science: 16 fractional works · 0.5% of its workAquatic Science: 13 fractional works · 0.4% of its workAnimal Science and Zoology: 10 fractional works · 0.3% of its workEcology, Evolution, Behavior and Systematics: 10 fractional works · 0.3% of its workAgronomy and Crop Science: 9 fractional works · 0.3% of its workInsect Science: 8 fractional works · 0.2% of its workGeneral Agricultural and Biological Sciences: 7 fractional works · 0.2% of its workSmaller subfields together: 6 fractional works · 0.2% of its workNeuroscience: 37 fractional works · 1.1% of its workCognitive Neuroscience: 23 fractional works · 0.7% of its workCellular and Molecular Neuroscience: 8 fractional works · 0.2% of its workSmaller subfields together: 7 fractional works · 0.2% of its workImmunology and Microbiology: 21 fractional works · 0.6% of its workImmunology: 16 fractional works · 0.5% of its workSmaller subfields together: 6 fractional works · 0.2% of its workPharmacology, Toxicology and Pharmaceutics: 7 fractional works · 0.2% of its workALL ITS WORKHuntsville3,353fractional works, 2022-now
Life Sciences11%Physical Sciences58%Health Sciences13%Social Sciences17%

Each ring splits the one inside it: the four domains of science, their fields, their subfields. Size is fractional works in 2022-now. Every slice is a page; the interactive view zooms down to single topics and colours each by how much more of it this city does than the world.

Its 4 domains and 26 fields, with their numbers
    1. Engineering88426.4%
    2. Physics and Astronomy3129.3%
    3. Computer Science3089.2%
    4. Environmental Science1594.7%
    5. Materials Science1003.0%
    6. Earth and Planetary Sciences802.4%
    7. Mathematics471.4%
    8. Chemistry331.0%
    9. Energy130.4%
    10. Chemical Engineering120.4%
    1. Social Sciences2537.6%
    2. Business, Management and Accounting772.3%
    3. Arts and Humanities682.0%
    4. Psychology662.0%
    5. Decision Sciences621.9%
    6. Economics, Econometrics and Finance581.7%
    1. Medicine36310.8%
    2. Health Professions641.9%
    3. Nursing140.4%
    4. Veterinary40.1%
    5. Dentistry10.0%
    1. Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology1695.0%
    2. Agricultural and Biological Sciences1394.1%
    3. Neuroscience371.1%
    4. Immunology and Microbiology210.6%
    5. Pharmacology, Toxicology and Pharmaceutics70.2%
All of science, and how each field's share has moved since 1950: the Science domain explorer

What is Huntsville strongest at in research?

Relative to its size, research in Huntsville is most concentrated in Astronomy and Astrophysics, Aerospace Engineering and Physics and Astronomy (9.5× the world share in Astronomy and Astrophysics).

  1. Astronomy and AstrophysicsSubfield · 137.7 works9.5×
  2. Aerospace EngineeringSubfield · 156.8 works4.8×
  3. Physics and AstronomyField · 255.7 works4.1×
  4. Computational MechanicsSubfield · 62.9 works3.9×
← less than its size predicts1×more →

Location quotient against the world baseline. Inside a single field a city is a meaningful unit, which is why this is where a city is measured at all.

The whole field profile

All 26 fields at once: above the ring is more than a place this size would be expected to do. A specialist and a generalist produce the same ranked list and a completely different shape.

Agricultural and Biological Sciences: 0.87× its world share, 115 worksAgricultural and Bio…Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology: 0.94× its world share, 140 worksBiochemistry, Geneti…Immunology and Microbiology: 0.67× its world share, 19 worksImmunology and Micro…Neuroscience: 0.52× its world share, 23 worksNeurosciencePharmacology, Toxicology and Pharmaceutics: 0.57× its world share, 6 worksPharmacology, Toxico…Chemical Engineering: 0.99× its world share, 10 worksChemical EngineeringChemistry: 0.59× its world share, 26 worksChemistryComputer Science: 1.12× its world share, 242 worksComputer ScienceEarth and Planetary Sciences: 1.58× its world share, 69 worksEarth and Planetary …Energy: 0.43× its world share, 11 worksEnergyEngineering: 1.84× its world share, 769 worksEngineeringEnvironmental Science: 0.98× its world share, 136 worksEnvironmental ScienceMaterials Science: 0.81× its world share, 79 worksMaterials ScienceMathematics: 1.00× its world share, 33 worksMathematicsPhysics and Astronomy: 4.12× its world share, 256 worksPhysics and AstronomyDentistry: 0.08× its world share, 1 worksDentistryHealth Professions: 0.71× its world share, 52 worksHealth ProfessionsMedicine: 0.55× its world share, 294 worksMedicineNursing: 0.81× its world share, 11 worksNursingVeterinary: 0.62× its world share, 2 worksVeterinaryArts and Humanities: 0.77× its world share, 62 worksArts and HumanitiesBusiness, Management and Accounting: 0.74× its world share, 66 worksBusiness, Management…Decision Sciences: 1.98× its world share, 53 worksDecision SciencesEconomics, Econometrics and Finance: 0.78× its world share, 46 worksEconomics, Econometr…Psychology: 0.65× its world share, 55 worksPsychologySocial Sciences: 0.61× its world share, 214 worksSocial Sciences1×world share
more than its size predictsabout as predictedless

Rings at 0.5×, 1× and 2×. Widest outward: Physics and Astronomy, 4.1×. Every wedge is a field page.

All 26 fields, with their numbers
  1. Physics and Astronomy4.12×256 works
  2. Decision Sciences1.98×53 works
  3. Engineering1.84×769 works
  4. Earth and Planetary Sciences1.58×69 works
  5. Computer Science1.12×242 works
  6. Mathematics1.00×33 works
  7. Chemical Engineering0.99×10 works
  8. Environmental Science0.98×136 works
  9. Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology0.94×140 works
  10. Agricultural and Biological Sciences0.87×115 works
  11. Materials Science0.81×79 works
  12. Nursing0.81×11 works
  13. Economics, Econometrics and Finance0.78×46 works
  14. Arts and Humanities0.77×62 works
  15. Business, Management and Accounting0.74×66 works
  16. Health Professions0.71×52 works
  17. Immunology and Microbiology0.67×19 works
  18. Psychology0.65×55 works
  19. Veterinary0.62×2 works
  20. Social Sciences0.61×214 works
  21. Chemistry0.59×26 works
  22. Pharmacology, Toxicology and Pharmaceutics0.57×6 works
  23. Medicine0.55×294 works
  24. Neuroscience0.52×23 works
  25. Energy0.43×11 works
  26. Dentistry0.08×1 works

Which keywords describe research in Huntsville?

By fractional works in 2022-now, weighted toward what it does more of than the world: Solar Wind, Machine Learning, Teaching Methods, Critical Thinking, Digital Education, Tourism Development, Deep Learning and Formative Assessment.

▲ more of its work than of the world's◆ about the world's share▼ less than the world's

Size is fractional works in 2022-now in the topics tagged with each word; colour is the word's share of this city's work against its share of the world's. The 40 words are chosen for being large and distinctive. Each links to the topic it comes from most.

All 40 words, with their numbers
  1. Machine Learning146▲ 1.31×79 topics
  2. Deep Learning122◆ 1.05×73 topics
  3. Climate Change106▲ 1.16×86 topics
  4. Sustainability78◆ 0.96×68 topics
  5. Remote Sensing69▲ 1.68×34 topics
  6. Solar Wind68▲ 22×2 topics
  7. Neural Networks56◆ 1.07×34 topics
  8. Heat Transfer53▲ 3.2×18 topics
  9. Pedagogy46▲ 2.8×11 topics
  10. Teaching Methods46▲ 8.4×6 topics
  11. Biosensors43▲ 2.6×12 topics
  12. Critical Thinking41▲ 10×4 topics
  13. Digital Education40▲ 8.1×5 topics
  14. Language Teaching40▲ 4.5×3 topics
  15. Tourism Development40▲ 8.7×2 topics
  16. Formative Assessment40▲ 14×2 topics
  17. Educational Technologies39▲ 13×1 topic
  18. Student Competencies39▲ 18×1 topic
  19. Coronal Mass Ejections38▲ 31×1 topic
  20. Large-Eddy Simulation38▲ 6.0×5 topics
  21. Solar Dynamics Observatory38▲ 31×1 topic
  22. Simulation37▲ 4.3×16 topics
  23. Combustion Instabilities31▲ 15×2 topics
  24. Electron Acceleration30▲ 14×2 topics
  25. Ionosphere30▲ 16×1 topic
  26. Magnetosphere30▲ 16×1 topic
  27. Optical Modulators29▲ 6.1×3 topics
  28. Data Assimilation25▲ 4.6×4 topics
  29. Boundary Layer24▲ 5.7×4 topics
  30. Metamaterials24▲ 5.0×5 topics
  31. Hybrid Rocket Propulsion23▲ 32×1 topic
  32. Regression Rate Behavior23▲ 32×1 topic
  33. Vortex Dynamics20▲ 5.4×4 topics
  34. Ensemble Kalman Filter20▲ 6.0×2 topics
  35. Solar System Abundances20▲ 12×1 topic
  36. Terrestrial Planets20▲ 12×1 topic
  37. Nanophotonics20▲ 6.1×3 topics
  38. Industrial Enterprises18▲ 16×1 topic
  39. Innovation Economics18▲ 16×1 topic
  40. Complex Adaptive Systems18▲ 18×3 topics

What research is done in Huntsville?

  1. 1 Solar and Space Plasma Dynamics Astronomy and Astrophysics 33 works
  2. 2 Education, Innovation and Language Studies Education 29 works
  3. 3 Ionosphere and magnetosphere dynamics Astronomy and Astrophysics 25 works
  4. 4 Rocket and propulsion systems research Aerospace Engineering 20 works
  5. 5 Astro and Planetary Science Astronomy and Astrophysics 18 works
  6. 6 Photonic and Optical Devices Electrical and Electronic Engineering 17 works
  7. 7 Spacecraft and Cryogenic Technologies Aerospace Engineering 14 works
  8. 8 Fluid Dynamics and Turbulent Flows Computational Mechanics 14 works
  9. 9 Hydraulic Fracturing and Reservoir Analysis Mechanical Engineering 14 works
  10. 10 Advanced Fiber Laser Technologies Atomic and Molecular Physics, and Optics 12 works

Research output over time

still counting1990200020102020
grewheldshrank

The same series as a ribbon: one cell per year, darker for more.

How much of it reaches the world top 10%

Year by year, against all institutions in the same year.

still counting10%20%Huntsville16.4% in 2025all institutions10.0% in 2025200020102020

Of each year's output, the share that reached the world's 10% most cited for its field and year. Peak 20.0% in 2016.

Discussion

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