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City · Colombia

Research in Medellín

Science Explorer records 34 research institutions in Medellín, Colombia. The highest-ranked on research quality in 2022-now are Universidad de Antioquia, Universidad Pontificia Bolivariana and Universidad EAFIT.

Research institutions
34
15 of them ranked worldwide
Research works
66k
▼ 10% vs 2018-21
Citations
366k
5.5 per fractional work, all time
Top-10% rate, 2022-now
10.8%
all institutions 10.0%
Active span
1950-2026
77 years on the record
Medellín

A city carries no overall standing here. The quality score is built for institutions and countries, the units its floors and field normalisation were designed around. An empty rank on this page is a statement about the measure, not about the place.

Which research institutions are in Medellín?

#InstitutionWorksAgainst the largest hereWorld rank
1Universidad de AntioquiaUniversity 32,038 #1,669
2Universidad Pontificia BolivarianaUniversity 8,774 #2,552
3Universidad EAFITUniversity 5,407 #3,638
4Universidad de MedellínUniversity 3,055 #5,403
5Instituto Tecnológico MetropolitanoUniversity 1,985 #4,279
6Universidad Católica Luis AmigóUniversity 1,921 #4,050
7Clínica CESHospital / health system 1,679 #6,002
8Hospital Pablo Tobon UribeHospital / health system 1,189 #14,347
9Institución Universitaria EsumerUniversity 1,158 #4,083
10Municipality of MedellínGovernment institution 879 #9,340
11Universidad CESUniversity 843 #11,762
12Hospital Universitario de San Vicente FundaciónHospital / health system 803 #15,829
13Antioquia Institute of TechnologyUniversity 782 #8,012
14Politécnico Colombiano Jaime Isaza CadavidUniversity 688 #9,031
15Corporación Universitaria RemingtonUniversity 608 #7,820
16Universidad Autónoma LatinoamericanaUniversity 579 #14,198
17Institución Universitaria Pascual BravoUniversity 576 #11,805
18Corporación para Investigaciones BiológicasResearch facility 468 #17,352 all time
19Institución Universitaria EscolmeUniversity 465 #15,479 all time
20Colombia Adventist UniversityUniversity 418 #12,557
21Institución Universitaria Visión de las AméricasUniversity 339 #16,505
22Institución Universitaria Colegio Mayor de AntioquiaUniversity 330 #15,579
23Institución Universitaria Salazar y HerreraUniversity 272 #20,542 all time
24Fundación Con VidaInstitution 261 #18,380
25Fundación Universitaria María CanoUniversity 226 #17,674
26Colegiatura Colombiana Institución UniversitariaUniversity 192 #31,870 all time
27KavilandoNonprofit 74 not ranked
28Fundación Universitaria Bellas ArtesUniversity 39 not ranked
29Argos Cement (Colombia)Company 38 not ranked
30Seminario Bíblico de Colombia Fundación UniversitariaInstitution 19 not ranked
31Parque ExploraArchive 5 not ranked
32Dinntec (Colombia)Company 3 not ranked
33PROGAL (Colombia)Company 3 not ranked
34Institución Tecnológica CedesistemasUniversity 2 not ranked

By fractional works over the whole record; world rank on research quality in 2022-now. Bars are scaled to the largest institution in this city, not to anything off the page.

How concentrated the city is

The same institutions as shares of everything the list accounts for. A city that is one university and a city that is twelve read alike as a table and not at all alike here.

Universidad de Antioquia: 48.5%Universidad Pontificia Bolivariana: 13.3%Universidad EAFIT: 8.2%Universidad de Medellín: 4.6%30 others listed: 25.5%48%largest
Universidad de Antioquia32k · 48.5%Universidad Pontificia Bolivariana8,774 · 13.3%Universidad EAFIT5,407 · 8.2%Universidad de Medellín3,055 · 4.6%30 others listed17k · 25.5%

Shares of the rows listed above, not of the whole node.

Which fields of science does Medellín work in?

In 2022-now, 36% of research in Medellín is in Social Sciences, 28% in Health Sciences. Its largest fields are Medicine (22%), Social Sciences (21%), Engineering (8%). It does 1.4× the world's share of Social Sciences.

Social Sciences: 4,983 fractional works · 35.6% of its workSocial Sciences: 2,882 fractional works · 20.6% of its workEducation: 663 fractional works · 4.7% of its workSociology and Political Science: 659 fractional works · 4.7% of its workPolitical Science and International Relations: 309 fractional works · 2.2% of its workDemography: 206 fractional works · 1.5% of its workLaw: 179 fractional works · 1.3% of its workCultural Studies: 135 fractional works · 1.0% of its workGeneral Social Sciences: 115 fractional works · 0.8% of its workCommunication: 112 fractional works · 0.8% of its workHealth: 92 fractional works · 0.7% of its workGender Studies: 81 fractional works · 0.6% of its workUrban Studies: 63 fractional works · 0.5% of its workDevelopment: 57 fractional works · 0.4% of its workAnthropology: 55 fractional works · 0.4% of its workSafety Research: 48 fractional works · 0.3% of its workLinguistics and Language: 43 fractional works · 0.3% of its workSmaller subfields together: 63 fractional works · 0.5% of its workPsychology: 561 fractional works · 4.0% of its workSocial Psychology: 217 fractional works · 1.5% of its workClinical Psychology: 168 fractional works · 1.2% of its workDevelopmental and Educational Psychology: 79 fractional works · 0.6% of its workExperimental and Cognitive Psychology: 64 fractional works · 0.5% of its workSmaller subfields together: 34 fractional works · 0.2% of its workBusiness, Management and Accounting: 561 fractional works · 4.0% of its workAccounting: 164 fractional works · 1.2% of its workOrganizational Behavior and Human Resource Management: 134 fractional works · 1.0% of its workStrategy and Management: 119 fractional works · 0.8% of its workManagement of Technology and Innovation: 47 fractional works · 0.3% of its workManagement Information Systems: 45 fractional works · 0.3% of its workMarketing: 35 fractional works · 0.3% of its workSmaller subfields together: 17 fractional works · 0.1% of its workArts and Humanities: 526 fractional works · 3.8% of its workLiterature and Literary Theory: 120 fractional works · 0.9% of its workPhilosophy: 79 fractional works · 0.6% of its workLanguage and Linguistics: 66 fractional works · 0.5% of its workVisual Arts and Performing Arts: 53 fractional works · 0.4% of its workHistory: 47 fractional works · 0.3% of its workMuseology: 45 fractional works · 0.3% of its workArcheology: 34 fractional works · 0.2% of its workSmaller subfields together: 82 fractional works · 0.6% of its workEconomics, Econometrics and Finance: 352 fractional works · 2.5% of its workEconomics and Econometrics: 297 fractional works · 2.1% of its workGeneral Economics, Econometrics and Finance: 29 fractional works · 0.2% of its workSmaller subfields together: 26 fractional works · 0.2% of its workDecision Sciences: 101 fractional works · 0.7% of its workManagement Science and Operations Research: 48 fractional works · 0.3% of its workSmaller subfields together: 53 fractional works · 0.4% of its workHealth Sciences: 3,878 fractional works · 27.7% of its workMedicine: 3,108 fractional works · 22.2% of its workSurgery: 368 fractional works · 2.6% of its workPublic Health, Environmental and Occupational Health: 353 fractional works · 2.5% of its workEpidemiology: 257 fractional works · 1.8% of its workPulmonary and Respiratory Medicine: 195 fractional works · 1.4% of its workCardiology and Cardiovascular Medicine: 169 fractional works · 1.2% of its workPhysiology: 152 fractional works · 1.1% of its workInfectious Diseases: 150 fractional works · 1.1% of its workRheumatology: 109 fractional works · 0.8% of its workOncology: 108 fractional works · 0.8% of its workPsychiatry and Mental health: 97 fractional works · 0.7% of its workEndocrinology, Diabetes and Metabolism: 95 fractional works · 0.7% of its workNeurology: 89 fractional works · 0.6% of its workPharmacology: 81 fractional works · 0.6% of its workPathology and Forensic Medicine: 75 fractional works · 0.5% of its workDermatology: 70 fractional works · 0.5% of its workRadiology, Nuclear Medicine and Imaging: 68 fractional works · 0.5% of its workPediatrics, Perinatology and Child Health: 67 fractional works · 0.5% of its workHematology: 52 fractional works · 0.4% of its workEmergency Medicine: 47 fractional works · 0.3% of its workOphthalmology: 42 fractional works · 0.3% of its workOrthopedics and Sports Medicine: 38 fractional works · 0.3% of its workGenetics: 36 fractional works · 0.3% of its workHepatology: 35 fractional works · 0.3% of its workObstetrics and Gynecology: 35 fractional works · 0.2% of its workCritical Care and Intensive Care Medicine: 34 fractional works · 0.2% of its workSmaller subfields together: 286 fractional works · 2.0% of its workHealth Professions: 543 fractional works · 3.9% of its workGeneral Health Professions: 291 fractional works · 2.1% of its workOccupational Therapy: 56 fractional works · 0.4% of its workPharmacy: 47 fractional works · 0.3% of its workSpeech and Hearing: 33 fractional works · 0.2% of its workSmaller subfields together: 117 fractional works · 0.8% of its workDentistry: 124 fractional works · 0.9% of its workOral Surgery: 49 fractional works · 0.3% of its workPeriodontics: 40 fractional works · 0.3% of its workSmaller subfields together: 35 fractional works · 0.3% of its workNursing: 64 fractional works · 0.5% of its workNutrition and Dietetics: 57 fractional works · 0.4% of its workSmaller subfields together: 6 fractional works · 0.0% of its workVeterinary: 39 fractional works · 0.3% of its workSmall Animals: 32 fractional works · 0.2% of its workSmaller subfields together: 7 fractional works · 0.1% of its workPhysical Sciences: 3,552 fractional works · 25.4% of its workEngineering: 1,172 fractional works · 8.4% of its workElectrical and Electronic Engineering: 245 fractional works · 1.7% of its workBiomedical Engineering: 202 fractional works · 1.4% of its workMechanical Engineering: 128 fractional works · 0.9% of its workControl and Systems Engineering: 83 fractional works · 0.6% of its workCivil and Structural Engineering: 80 fractional works · 0.6% of its workBuilding and Construction: 72 fractional works · 0.5% of its workAutomotive Engineering: 69 fractional works · 0.5% of its workIndustrial and Manufacturing Engineering: 56 fractional works · 0.4% of its workAerospace Engineering: 56 fractional works · 0.4% of its workMechanics of Materials: 46 fractional works · 0.3% of its workMedia Technology: 43 fractional works · 0.3% of its workComputational Mechanics: 41 fractional works · 0.3% of its workSmaller subfields together: 50 fractional works · 0.4% of its workEnvironmental Science: 748 fractional works · 5.3% of its workHealth, Toxicology and Mutagenesis: 144 fractional works · 1.0% of its workWater Science and Technology: 113 fractional works · 0.8% of its workEcology: 101 fractional works · 0.7% of its workManagement, Monitoring, Policy and Law: 80 fractional works · 0.6% of its workGlobal and Planetary Change: 71 fractional works · 0.5% of its workPollution: 58 fractional works · 0.4% of its workEnvironmental Engineering: 56 fractional works · 0.4% of its workIndustrial and Manufacturing Engineering: 49 fractional works · 0.3% of its workNature and Landscape Conservation: 38 fractional works · 0.3% of its workEnvironmental Chemistry: 28 fractional works · 0.2% of its workSmaller subfields together: 10 fractional works · 0.1% of its workComputer Science: 672 fractional works · 4.8% of its workInformation Systems: 252 fractional works · 1.8% of its workComputer Science Applications: 136 fractional works · 1.0% of its workArtificial Intelligence: 113 fractional works · 0.8% of its workComputer Networks and Communications: 50 fractional works · 0.4% of its workComputer Vision and Pattern Recognition: 49 fractional works · 0.3% of its workComputational Theory and Mathematics: 30 fractional works · 0.2% of its workSmaller subfields together: 43 fractional works · 0.3% of its workMaterials Science: 275 fractional works · 2.0% of its workMaterials Chemistry: 131 fractional works · 0.9% of its workBiomaterials: 84 fractional works · 0.6% of its workPolymers and Plastics: 29 fractional works · 0.2% of its workSmaller subfields together: 31 fractional works · 0.2% of its workPhysics and Astronomy: 173 fractional works · 1.2% of its workAtomic and Molecular Physics, and Optics: 95 fractional works · 0.7% of its workSmaller subfields together: 78 fractional works · 0.6% of its workEnergy: 143 fractional works · 1.0% of its workRenewable Energy, Sustainability and the Environment: 130 fractional works · 0.9% of its workSmaller subfields together: 13 fractional works · 0.1% of its workEarth and Planetary Sciences: 135 fractional works · 1.0% of its workGeophysics: 37 fractional works · 0.3% of its workAtmospheric Science: 32 fractional works · 0.2% of its workPaleontology: 29 fractional works · 0.2% of its workSmaller subfields together: 37 fractional works · 0.3% of its workChemistry: 96 fractional works · 0.7% of its workOrganic Chemistry: 45 fractional works · 0.3% of its workSmaller subfields together: 51 fractional works · 0.4% of its workMathematics: 95 fractional works · 0.7% of its workStatistics and Probability: 41 fractional works · 0.3% of its workSmaller subfields together: 54 fractional works · 0.4% of its workChemical Engineering: 43 fractional works · 0.3% of its workLife Sciences: 1,589 fractional works · 11.3% of its workAgricultural and Biological Sciences: 729 fractional works · 5.2% of its workPlant Science: 173 fractional works · 1.2% of its workFood Science: 167 fractional works · 1.2% of its workGeneral Agricultural and Biological Sciences: 105 fractional works · 0.8% of its workEcology, Evolution, Behavior and Systematics: 97 fractional works · 0.7% of its workInsect Science: 56 fractional works · 0.4% of its workAnimal Science and Zoology: 36 fractional works · 0.3% of its workSmaller subfields together: 94 fractional works · 0.7% of its workBiochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology: 491 fractional works · 3.5% of its workMolecular Biology: 226 fractional works · 1.6% of its workGenetics: 117 fractional works · 0.8% of its workCell Biology: 35 fractional works · 0.3% of its workSmaller subfields together: 113 fractional works · 0.8% of its workImmunology and Microbiology: 185 fractional works · 1.3% of its workImmunology: 87 fractional works · 0.6% of its workParasitology: 42 fractional works · 0.3% of its workSmaller subfields together: 56 fractional works · 0.4% of its workNeuroscience: 147 fractional works · 1.0% of its workCognitive Neuroscience: 86 fractional works · 0.6% of its workSmaller subfields together: 61 fractional works · 0.4% of its workPharmacology, Toxicology and Pharmaceutics: 38 fractional works · 0.3% of its workALL ITS WORKMedellín14kfractional works, 2022-now
Life Sciences11%Physical Sciences25%Health Sciences28%Social Sciences36%

Each ring splits the one inside it: the four domains of science, their fields, their subfields. Size is fractional works in 2022-now. Every slice is a page; the interactive view zooms down to single topics and colours each by how much more of it this city does than the world.

Its 4 domains and 26 fields, with their numbers
  1. Social Sciences4,98335.6%
    1. Social Sciences2,88220.6%
    2. Psychology5614.0%
    3. Business, Management and Accounting5614.0%
    4. Arts and Humanities5263.8%
    5. Economics, Econometrics and Finance3522.5%
    6. Decision Sciences1010.7%
  2. Health Sciences3,87827.7%
    1. Medicine3,10822.2%
    2. Health Professions5433.9%
    3. Dentistry1240.9%
    4. Nursing640.5%
    5. Veterinary390.3%
    1. Engineering1,1728.4%
    2. Environmental Science7485.3%
    3. Computer Science6724.8%
    4. Materials Science2752.0%
    5. Physics and Astronomy1731.2%
    6. Energy1431.0%
    7. Earth and Planetary Sciences1351.0%
    8. Chemistry960.7%
    9. Mathematics950.7%
    10. Chemical Engineering430.3%
  4. Life Sciences1,58911.3%
    1. Agricultural and Biological Sciences7295.2%
    2. Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology4913.5%
    3. Immunology and Microbiology1851.3%
    4. Neuroscience1471.0%
    5. Pharmacology, Toxicology and Pharmaceutics380.3%
All of science, and how each field's share has moved since 1950: the Science domain explorer

What is Medellín strongest at in research?

Relative to its size, research in Medellín is most concentrated in Life-span and Life-course Studies, General Social Sciences and Development (9.6× the world share in Life-span and Life-course Studies).

  1. Life-span and Life-course StudiesSubfield · 20.1 works9.6×
  2. General Social SciencesSubfield · 107.4 works7.8×
  3. DevelopmentSubfield · 52.6 works4.2×
  4. Computer Science ApplicationsSubfield · 124.6 works4.0×
← less than its size predicts1×more →

Location quotient against the world baseline. Inside a single field a city is a meaningful unit, which is why this is where a city is measured at all.

The whole field profile

All 26 fields at once: above the ring is more than a place this size would be expected to do. A specialist and a generalist produce the same ranked list and a completely different shape.

Agricultural and Biological Sciences: 1.08× its world share, 645 worksAgricultural and Bio…Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology: 0.64× its world share, 427 worksBiochemistry, Geneti…Immunology and Microbiology: 1.28× its world share, 162 worksImmunology and Micro…Neuroscience: 0.65× its world share, 132 worksNeurosciencePharmacology, Toxicology and Pharmaceutics: 0.76× its world share, 34 worksPharmacology, Toxico…Chemical Engineering: 0.89× its world share, 39 worksChemical EngineeringChemistry: 0.46× its world share, 90 worksChemistryComputer Science: 0.62× its world share, 607 worksComputer ScienceEarth and Planetary Sciences: 0.54× its world share, 107 worksEarth and Planetary …Energy: 1.12× its world share, 129 worksEnergyEngineering: 0.56× its world share, 1,055 worksEngineeringEnvironmental Science: 1.06× its world share, 659 worksEnvironmental ScienceMaterials Science: 0.55× its world share, 243 worksMaterials ScienceMathematics: 0.55× its world share, 81 worksMathematicsPhysics and Astronomy: 0.54× its world share, 152 worksPhysics and AstronomyDentistry: 1.79× its world share, 109 worksDentistryHealth Professions: 1.49× its world share, 495 worksHealth ProfessionsMedicine: 1.15× its world share, 2,776 worksMedicineNursing: 0.94× its world share, 58 worksNursingVeterinary: 2.00× its world share, 34 worksVeterinaryArts and Humanities: 1.34× its world share, 484 worksArts and HumanitiesBusiness, Management and Accounting: 1.24× its world share, 504 worksBusiness, Management…Decision Sciences: 0.72× its world share, 87 worksDecision SciencesEconomics, Econometrics and Finance: 1.25× its world share, 335 worksEconomics, Econometr…Psychology: 1.32× its world share, 507 worksPsychologySocial Sciences: 1.64× its world share, 2,606 worksSocial Sciences1×world share
more than its size predictsabout as predictedless

Rings at 0.5×, 1× and 2×. Widest outward: Veterinary, 2.0×. Every wedge is a field page.

All 26 fields, with their numbers
  1. Veterinary2.00×34 works
  2. Dentistry1.79×109 works
  3. Social Sciences1.64×2,606 works
  4. Health Professions1.49×495 works
  5. Arts and Humanities1.34×484 works
  6. Psychology1.32×507 works
  7. Immunology and Microbiology1.28×162 works
  8. Economics, Econometrics and Finance1.25×335 works
  9. Business, Management and Accounting1.24×504 works
  10. Medicine1.15×2,776 works
  11. Energy1.12×129 works
  12. Agricultural and Biological Sciences1.08×645 works
  13. Environmental Science1.06×659 works
  14. Nursing0.94×58 works
  15. Chemical Engineering0.89×39 works
  16. Pharmacology, Toxicology and Pharmaceutics0.76×34 works
  17. Decision Sciences0.72×87 works
  18. Neuroscience0.65×132 works
  19. Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology0.64×427 works
  20. Computer Science0.62×607 works
  21. Engineering0.56×1,055 works
  22. Materials Science0.55×243 works
  23. Mathematics0.55×81 works
  24. Earth and Planetary Sciences0.54×107 works
  25. Physics and Astronomy0.54×152 works
  26. Chemistry0.46×90 works

Which keywords describe research in Medellín?

By fractional works in 2022-now, weighted toward what it does more of than the world: Education, Latin America, Epidemiology, Globalization, Health Promotion, Human Rights, Innovation and Competitiveness.

▲ more of its work than of the world's◆ about the world's share▼ less than the world's

Size is fractional works in 2022-now in the topics tagged with each word; colour is the word's share of this city's work against its share of the world's. The 40 words are chosen for being large and distinctive. Each links to the topic it comes from most.

All 40 words, with their numbers
  1. Education940▲ 3.9×107 topics
  2. Epidemiology902▲ 1.62×136 topics
  3. Globalization648▲ 2.4×114 topics
  4. Sustainability578▲ 1.69×100 topics
  5. Human Rights462▲ 3.2×56 topics
  6. Innovation456▲ 3.1×56 topics
  7. Climate Change449▲ 1.18×107 topics
  8. Public Health442▲ 2.2×70 topics
  9. Latin America419▲ 16×23 topics
  10. Quality of Life360▲ 1.78×60 topics
  11. Mental Health352▲ 1.76×44 topics
  12. Sustainable Development342▲ 1.56×72 topics
  13. Health Promotion323▲ 7.3×18 topics
  14. COVID-19314▲ 1.73×29 topics
  15. Educational Technology311▲ 1.88×34 topics
  16. Knowledge Management280▲ 3.6×31 topics
  17. Competitiveness276▲ 25×7 topics
  18. Digital Marketing272▲ 5.0×5 topics
  19. Social Responsibility264▲ 8.2×8 topics
  20. Teacher Training261▲ 3.0×25 topics
  21. Communication260▲ 5.9×19 topics
  22. Pedagogy236▲ 3.4×20 topics
  23. Small and Medium Enterprises234▲ 9.5×6 topics
  24. Ethics226▲ 3.2×47 topics
  25. Technology225▲ 3.1×33 topics
  26. Nutrition219▲ 3.5×16 topics
  27. Urban Development214▲ 4.3×15 topics
  28. Public Policy212▲ 3.2×24 topics
  29. Colombia207▲ 88×2 topics
  30. Inclusive Education200▲ 4.0×15 topics
  31. Innovation Ecosystems198▲ 14×2 topics
  32. Violence196▲ 9.6×14 topics
  33. Social Movements193▲ 4.7×24 topics
  34. Globalization Effects182▲ 19×2 topics
  35. Society182▲ 6.8×16 topics
  36. Tourism Management181▲ 19×2 topics
  37. City Branding181▲ 21×1 topic
  38. Psychopharmacology Education181▲ 21×1 topic
  39. Political Violence156▲ 44×3 topics
  40. University Students147▲ 19×2 topics

What research is done in Medellín?

Business, Innovation, and Economy: 174 fractional worksEducational Innovations and Technology: 127 fractional worksConflict, Peace, and Violence in Colombia: 96 fractional worksHealth and Lifestyle Studies: 94 fractional worksHistory and Politics in Latin America: 92 fractional worksE-Learning and Knowledge Management: 84 fractional worksEducation and Teacher Tr…78Education and Teacher Training: 78 fractional worksSocial Sciences and Policies: 74 fractional worksPublic Health and Environmental Issues: 68 fractional worksStress and Burnout Resea…66Stress and Burnout Research: 66 fractional works
Economics and EconometricsInformation SystemsSociology and Political ScienceGeneral Health Professions6 others

Area is fractional works; colour is the subfield each topic belongs to.

  1. 1 Business, Innovation, and Economy Economics and Econometrics 174 works
  2. 2 Educational Innovations and Technology Information Systems 127 works
  3. 3 Conflict, Peace, and Violence in Colombia Sociology and Political Science 96 works
  4. 4 Health and Lifestyle Studies General Health Professions 94 works
  5. 5 History and Politics in Latin America Demography 92 works
  6. 6 E-Learning and Knowledge Management Computer Science Applications 84 works
  7. 7 Education and Teacher Training Education 78 works
  8. 8 Social Sciences and Policies General Social Sciences 74 works
  9. 9 Public Health and Environmental Issues Health, Toxicology and Mutagenesis 68 works
  10. 10 Stress and Burnout Research Social Psychology 66 works

Research output over time

still counting1990200020102020
grewheldshrank

The same series as a ribbon: one cell per year, darker for more.

How much of it reaches the world top 10%

Year by year, against all institutions in the same year.

still counting5%10%15%Medellín11.6% in 2025all institutions10.0% in 2025200020102020

Of each year's output, the share that reached the world's 10% most cited for its field and year. Peak 11.6% in 2025.

Discussion

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